]> This document is version 2.0 (June 2008) of an unofficial reference manual for &latex;, a document preparation system. &latex; is a macro package for &tex;. This was originally translated from LATEX.HLP v1.0a in the VMS Help Library. The pre-translation version was written by George D. Greenwade of Sam Houston State University. The &latex; 2.09 version was written by Stephen Gilmore. The &latex;2e version was adapted from this by Torsten Martinsen. Karl Berry made further updates and additions, and gratefully acknowledges using Hypertext Help with &latex;, by Sheldon Green, and the &latex; Command Summary (for &latex; 2.09) by L. Botway and C. Biemesderfer (published by the &tex; Users Group as &tex;niques number 10), as reference material (text was not directly copied). Copyright © 2007, 2008 Karl Berry. Copyright © 1988, 1994, 2007 Stephen Gilmore. Copyright © 1994, 1995, 1996 Torsten Martinsen. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions. This document is version 2.0 (June 2008) of an unofficial reference manual for &latex;, a document preparation system. It is intended to cover &latex;2e, which has been the standard version of &latex; for many years. Knuth, Donald E.Lamport, Leslie&latex; Project team&latex; is implemented as a macro package for Donald E. Knuth's &tex; typesetting program. &latex; was originally created by Leslie Lamport; it is now maintained by a group of volunteers (http://latex-project.org). The official documentation written by the &latex; project is available there. Again, the present document is unofficial and has not been reviewed by the &latex; maintainers. overview of &latex;&latex; overview The &latex; command typesets a file of text using the &tex; program and the &latex; “macro package” for &tex;. To be more specific, it processes an input file containing the text of a document with interspersed commands that describe how the text should be formatted. It produces at least three files as output: A main output file, which is one of: If invoked as latex, a “Device Independent” (.dvi) file. This contains commands that can be translated into commands for a variety of output devices. You can view such .dvi output of &latex; by using a program such as xdvi (display directly) or dvips (convert to PostScript). If invoked as pdflatex, a “Portable Document Format” (.pdf) file. Typically, this is a self-contained file, with all fonts and images embedded. This can be very useful, but it does make the output much larger than the .dvi produced from the same document. There are other less-common variants of &latex; (and &tex;) as well, which can produce HTML, XML, and other things. A “transcript” or .log file that contains summary information and diagnostic messages for any errors discovered in the input file. An “auxiliary” or .aux file. This is used by &latex; itself, for things such as sectioning. A &latex; command begins with the command name, which consists of a \ followed by either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single non-letter. Arguments contained in square brackets, [], are optional while arguments contained in braces, {}, are required. &latex; is case sensitive. Enter all commands in lower case unless explicitly directed to do otherwise. starting & endingending & starting A minimal input file looks like the following: \documentclass{class} \begin{document} your text \end{document} where the class is a valid document class for &latex;. See , for details of the various document classes available locally. preamble, definedYou may include other &latex; commands between the \documentclass and the \begin{document} commands (this area is called the preamble). document classesclasses of documents\documentclass The class of a given document is defined with the command: \documentclass[options]{class} The \documentclass command must be the first command in a &latex; source file. article classreport classbook classletter classslides classBuilt-in &latex; document class names are (many other document classes are available as add-ons; see ): article report book letter slides Standard options are described below. document class optionsoptions, document classclass optionsglobal options You can specify so-called global options or class options to the \documentclass command by enclosing them in square brackets as usual. To specify more than one option, separate them with a comma: \documentclass[option1,option2,...]{class} Here is the list of the standard class options. 10pt option11pt option12pt optionAll of the standard classes except slides accept the following options for selecting the typeface size (default is 10pt): 10pt 11pt 12pt a4paper optiona5paper optionb5paper optionexecutivepaper optionlegalpaper optionletterpaper optionAll of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper size (default is letterpaper): a4paper a5paper b5paper executivepaper legalpaper letterpaper draft optionfinal optionfleqn optionlandscape optionleqno optionopenbib optiontitlepage optionnotitlepage optionMiscellaneous other options: draft, final black boxes, omittingmark/do not mark overfull boxes with a big black box; default is final. fleqn Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered. landscape Selects landscape format; default is portrait. leqno Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side. openbib Use “open” bibliography format. titlepage, notitlepage Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on the class. These options are not available with the slides class: onecolumn optiontwocolumn optiononeside optiontwoside optionopenright optionopenany option onecolumn twocolumn Typeset in one or two columns; default is onecolumn. oneside twoside \evensidemargin\oddsidemarginSelects one- or two-sided layout; default is oneside, except for the book class. The \evensidemargin (\oddsidemargin parameter determines the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the page and the text's left margin. The defaults vary with the paper size and whether one- or two-side layout is selected. For one-sided printing the text is centered, for two-sided, \oddsidemargin is 40% of the difference between \paperwidth and \textwidth with \evensidemargin the remainder. openright openany Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default is openright for book. The slides class offers the option clock for printing the time at the bottom of each note. packages, loadingloading additional packages\usepackageAdditional packages are loaded like this: \usepackage[options]{pkg} To specify more than one pkg, you can separate them with a comma, or use multiple \usepackage commands. global optionsoptions, globalAny options given in the \documentclass command that are unknown by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with \usepackage. typefacesfonts Two important aspects of selecting a font are specifying a size and a style. The &latex; commands for doing this are described here. font stylestypeface stylesstyles of text The following type style commands are supported by &latex;. These commands are used like \textit{italic text}. The corresponding command in parenthesis is the “declaration form”, which takes no arguments. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group. The declaration forms are cumulative; i.e., you can say either \sffamily\bfseries or \bfseries\sffamily to get bold sans serif. You can also use the environment form of the declaration forms; for instance, \begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}. \textrm (\rmfamily) \textrm\rmfamilyRoman. \textit (\itshape) \textit\itshapeItalics. \emph \emphemphasisEmphasis (switches between \textit and \textrm). \textmd (\mdseries) \textmd\mdseriesMedium weight (default). \textbf (\bfseries) \textbf\bfseriesBoldface. \textup (\upshape) \textup\upshapeUpright (default). The opposite of slanted. \textsl (\slshape) \textsl\slshapeSlanted. \textsf (\sffamily) \textsf\sffamilySans serif. \textsc (\scshape) \textsc\scshapeSmall caps. \texttt (\ttfamily) \texttt\ttfamilyTypewriter. \textnormal (\normalfont) \textnormal\normalfontMain document font. \mathrm \mathrmRoman, for use in math mode. \mathbf \mathbfBoldface, for use in math mode. \mathsf \mathsfSans serif, for use in math mode. \mathtt \mathttTypewriter, for use in math mode. \mathit (\mit) Italics, for use in math mode. \mathnormal \mathnormalFor use in math mode, e.g. inside another type style declaration. \mathcal \mathcal`Calligraphic' letters, for use in math mode. In addition, the command \mathversion{bold} \mathversioncan be used for switching to bold letters and symbols in formulas. \mathversion{normal} restores the default. &latex; also provides these commands, which unconditionally switch to the given style, that is, are not cumulative. They are used differently than the above commands, too: {\cmd ...} instead of \cmd{...}. These are two very different things. \bf bold fontSwitch to bold face. \cal script letters for mathcalligraphic letters for mathSwitch to calligraphic letters for math. \em emphasisEmphasis (italics within roman, roman within italics). \it italic fontItalics. \rm roman fontRoman. \sc small caps fontSmall caps. \sf sans serif fontSans serif. \sl slanted fontoblique fontSlanted (oblique). \tt typewriter fontmonospace fontfixed-width fontTypewriter (monospace, fixed-width). font sizestypeface sizessizes of text The following standard type size commands are supported by &latex;. The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size used (in points) with the ‘10pt’, ‘11pt’, and ‘12pt’ document size options, respectively (see ). \tiny\scriptsize\footnotesize\small\normalsize\large\Large\LARGE\huge\Huge Command 10pt 11pt 12pt \tiny 5 6 6 \scriptsize 7 8 8 \footnotesize 8 9 10 \small 9 10 10.95 \normalsize (default) 10 10.95 12 \large 12 12 14.4 \Large 14.4 14.4 17.28 \LARGE 17.28 17.28 20.74 \huge 20.74 20.74 24.88 \Huge 24.88 24.88 24.88 The commands as listed here are “declaration forms”. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group. You can also use the environment form of these commands; for instance, \begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}. low-level font commandsfont commands, low-level These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available ones. \fontencoding{enc} \fontencodingSelect font encoding. Valid encodings include OT1 and T1. \fontfamily{family} \fontfamilySelect font family. Valid families include: cmr for Computer Modern Roman cmss for Computer Modern Sans Serif cmtt for Computer Modern Typewriter and numerous others. \fontseries{series} \fontseriesSelect font series. Valid series include: m Medium (normal) b Bold c Condensed bc Bold condensed bx Bold extended and various other combinations. \fontshape{shape} \fontshapeSelect font shape. Valid shapes are: n Upright (normal) it Italic sl Slanted (oblique) sc Small caps ui Upright italics ol Outline The two last shapes are not available for most font families. \fontsize{size}{skip} \fontsize\baselineskipSet font size. The first parameter is the font size to switch to and the second is the line spacing to use; this is stored in a parameter named \baselineskip. The unit of both parameters defaults to pt. The default \baselineskip for the Computer Modern typeface is 1.2 times the \fontsize. \baselinestretchsetspace packageThe line spacing is also multiplied by the value of the \baselinestretch parameter when the type size changes; the default is 1. However, the best way to “double space” a document, if you should be unlucky enough to have to produce such, is to use the setspace package; see http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=linespace. \selectfont \selectfontThe changes made by calling the four font commands described above do not come into effect until \selectfont is called. \usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape} \usefontThe same as invoking \fontencoding, \fontfamily, \fontseries and \fontshape with the given parameters, followed by \selectfont. layout commands Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page. \onecolumnone-column output The \onecolumn declaration starts a new page and produces single-column output. This is the default. \twocolumnmulticolumn texttwo-column output Synopsis: \twocolumn[text1col] The \twocolumn declaration starts a new page and produces two-column output. If the optional text1col argument is present, it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting starts. These parameters control typesetting in two-column output: \columnsep The distance between columns (35pt by default). \columnseprule The width of the rule between columns; the default is 0pt, so there is no rule. \columnwidth The width of the current column; this is equal to \textwidth in single-column text. These parameters control float behavior in two-column output: \dbltopfraction Maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be occupied by floats. Default ‘.7’, can be usefully redefined to (say) ‘.9’ to avoid going to float pages so soon. \dblfloatpagefraction The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats, for a two-column float page. Default ‘.5’. \dblfloatsep Distance between floats at the top or bottom of a two-column float page. Default ‘12pt plus2pt minus2pt’ for ‘10pt’ and ‘11pt’ documents, ‘14pt plus2pt minus4pt’ for ‘12pt’. \dbltextfloatsep Distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a page and the main text. Default ‘20pt plus2pt minus4pt’. \flushbottom The \flushbottom declaration makes all text pages the same height, adding extra vertical space where necessary to fill out the page. This is the default if twocolumn mode is selected (see ). \raggedbottomstretch, omitting vertical The \raggedbottom declaration makes all pages the natural height of the material on that page. No rubber lengths will be stretched. page layout parametersparameters, page layoutlayout, page parameters forheader, parameters forfooter, parameters forrunning header and footer \headheight Height of the box that contains the running head. Default is ‘30pt’, except in the book class, where it varies with the type size. \headsep Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of the main text. Default is ‘25pt’, except in the book class, where it varies with the type size. \footskip Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of the page footer. Default is ‘30pt’, except in the book class, where it varies with the type size. \linewidth Width of the current line; the default varies with the font size, paper width, two-column mode, etc. For an article document in ‘10pt’, it's set to ‘345pt’; in two-column mode, that becomes ‘229.5pt’. \textheight The normal vertical height of the page body; the default varies with the font size, document class, etc. For an article or report document in ‘10pt’, it's set to ‘43\baselineskip’; for book, it's ‘41\baselineskip’. For ‘11pt’, it's ‘38\baselineskip’ and for ‘12pt’, ‘36\baselineskip’. \textwidth The normal horizontal width of the page body; the default varies as usual. For an article or report document, it's ‘345pt’ at ‘10pt’, ‘360pt’ at ‘11pt’, and ‘390pt’ at ‘12pt’. For a book document, it's ‘4.5in’ at ‘10pt’, and ‘5in’ at ‘11pt’ or ‘12pt’. \topmargin Space between the top of the &tex; page (one inch from the top of the paper, by default) and the top of the header. The default is computed based on many other parameters: \paperheight − 2in − \headheight − \headsep − \textheight − \footskip, and then divided by two. \topskip Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of the first line of text. For the standard clases, the default is the same as the font size, e.g., ‘10pt’ at ‘10pt’. sectioning Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units: \part \chapter (report and book class only) \section \subsection \subsubsection \paragraph \subparagraph All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g., \chapter[toctitle]{title} In addition to providing the heading title in the main text, the section title can appear in two other places: The table of contents. The running head at the top of the page. You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument toctitle that, when given, specifies the text for these other places. *-form of sectioning commandsAlso, all sectioning commands have *-forms that print title as usual, but do not include a number and do not make an entry in the table of contents. For instance: \section*{Preamble} \appendixappendix, creatingThe \appendix command changes the way following sectional units are numbered. The \appendix command itself generates no text and does not affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this command is something like \chapter{A Chapter} … \appendix \chapter{The First Appendix} cross references One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer the reader to them, as in “See Figure 3 for more details.” \label Synopsis: \label{key} A \label command appearing in ordinary text assigns to key the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing inside a numbered environment assigns that number to key. A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished. To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a colon or period. Some conventionally-used prefixes: ch for chapters sec for lower-level sectioning commands fig for figures tab for tables eq for equations Thus, a label for a figure would look like fig:snark or fig.snark. \pagerefcross referencing with page numberpage number, cross referencing Synopsis: \pageref{key} The \pageref{key} command produces the page number of the place in the text where the corresponding \label{key} command appears. \refcross referencing, symbolicsection number, cross referencingequation number, cross referencingfigure number, cross referencingfootnote number, cross referencing Synopsis: \ref{key} The \ref command produces the number of the sectional unit, equation, footnote, figure, …, of the corresponding \label command (see ). It does not produce any text, such as the word `Section' or `Figure', just the bare number itself. environments \begin\end &latex; provides many environments for marking off certain text. Each environment begins and ends in the same manner: \begin{envname} ... \end{envname} abstract environmentabstracts Synopsis: \begin{abstract} ... \end{abstract} Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs. array environmentarrays, math Synopsis: \begin{array}{template} col1 text&col1 text&coln}\\ ... \end{array} Math arrays are produced with the array environment, normally within an equation environment (see ). It has a single mandatory template argument describing the number of columns and the alignment within them. Each column col is specified by a single letter that tells how items in that row should be formatted, as follows: c centered l flush left r flush right \\ (for array)Column entries are separated by &. Column entries may include other &latex; commands. Each row of the array is terminated with \\. @{...}In the template, the construct @{text} puts text between columns in each row. Here's an example: \begin{equation} \begin{array}{lrc} left1 & right1 & centered1 \\ left2 & right2 & centered2 \\ \end{array} \end{equation} \arraycolsepThe \arraycolsep parameter defines half the width of the space separating columns; the default is ‘5pt’. See , for other parameters which affect formatting in array environments, namely \arrayrulewidth and \arraystretch. The array environment can only be used in math mode. center environmentcentering text, environment for Synopsis: \begin{center} line1 \\ line2 \\ \end{center} \\ (for center)The center environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are centered within the left and right margins on the current page. Each line is terminated with the string \\. \centeringcentering text, declaration for The \centering declaration corresponds to the center environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in a parbox. Thus, the text of a figure or table can be centered on the page by putting a \centering command at the beginning of the figure or table environment. Unlike the center environment, the \centering command does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how &latex; formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end command (of an environment such as quote) that ends the paragraph unit. Here's an example: \begin{quote} \centering first line \\ second line \\ \end{quote} description environmentlabelled lists, creatingdescription lists, creating Synopsis: \begin{description} \item [label1] item1 \item [label2] item2 ... \end{description} \itemThe description environment is used to make labelled lists. Each label is typeset in bold, flush right. The item text may contain multiple paragraphs. bold typewriter, avoidingtypewriter labels in listsAnother variation: since the bold style is applied to the labels, if you typeset a label in typewriter using \texttt, you'll get bold typewriter: \item[\texttt{bold and typewriter}]. This may be too bold, among other issues. To get just typewriter, use \tt, which resets all other style variations: \item[{\tt plain typewriter}]. For details about list spacing, see . displaymath environment Synopsis: \begin{displaymath} math \end{displaymath} or \[math\] The displaymath environment (\[...\] is a synonym) typesets the math text on its own line, centered by default. The global fleqn option makes equations flush left; see . No equation number is added to displaymath text; to get an equation number, use the equation environment (see ). document environment The document environment encloses the body of a document. It is required in every &latex; document. See . enumerate environmentlists of items, numbered Synopsis: \begin{enumerate} \item item1 \item item2 ... \end{enumerate} The enumerate environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as itemize (see ) and description (see ). \itemEach item of an enumerated list begins with an \item command. There must be at least one \item command within the environment. By default, the numbering at each level is done like this: 1., 2., … (a), (b), … i., ii., … A., B., … \enumi\enumii\enumiii\enumivThe enumerate environment uses the counters \enumi through \enumiv counters (see ). If the optional argument to \item is given, the counter is not incremented for that item. \labelenumi\labelenumii\labelenumiii\labelenumivThe enumerate environment uses the commands \labelenumi through \labelenumiv to produce the default label. So, you can use \renewcommand to change the labels (see ). For instance, to have the first level use uppercase letters: \Alph example \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\Alph{enumi}} eqnarray environmentequations, aligningaligning Equations \begin{eqnarray} (or eqnarray*) formula1 \\ formula2 \\ ... \end{eqnarray} \\ (for eqnarray)The eqnarray environment is used to display a sequence of equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column array environment, with consecutive rows separated by \\ and consecutive items within a row separated by an &. \\* (for eqnarray)\\* can also be used to separate equations, with its normal meaning of not allowing a page break at that line. \nonumberequation numbers, omittingAn equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a \nonumber command. Alternatively, The *-form of the environment (\begin{eqnarray*} ... \end{eqnarray*}) will omit equation numbering entirely, while otherwise being the same as eqnarray. \lefteqnThe command \lefteqn is used for splitting long formulas across lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of zero width. equation environmentequations, environment forformulas, environment for Synopsis: \begin{equation} math \end{equation} The equation environment starts a displaymath environment (see ), e.g., centering the math text on the page, and also places an equation number in the right margin. figureinserting figuresfigures, inserting \begin{figure}[placement] figbody \label{label} \caption[loftitle]{text} \end{figure} Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are instead “floated” to a convenient place, such as the top of a page. Figures will not be split between two pages. The optional argument [placement] determines where &latex; will try to place your figure. There are four places where &latex; can possibly put a float: h (Here) - at the position in the text where the figure environment appears. t (Top) - at the top of a text page. b (Bottom) - at the bottom of a text page. p (Page of floats) - on a separate float page, which is a page containing no text, only floats. The standard report and article classes use the default placement tbp. The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, &latex; commands, etc. you wish. \captionThe \caption command specifies caption text for the figure. The caption is numbered by default. If loftitle is present, it is used in the list of figures instead of text (see ). \floatpagefraction The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats; default ‘.5’. \floatsep Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default ‘12pt plus2pt minus2pt’. \intextsep Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default ‘12pt plus2pt minus2pt’ for ‘10pt’ and ‘11pt’ styles, ‘14pt plus4pt minus4pt’ for ‘12pt’. \textfloatsep Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page; default ‘20pt plus2pt minus4pt’. \textfraction Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a different page. The default is ‘.2’. \topfraction Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before floats; default is ‘.7’. flushleft environmentleft-justifying text, environment forragged right text, environment for \begin{flushleft} line1 \\ line2 \\ ... \end{flushleft} \\ for flushleftThe flushleft environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged right Each line must be terminated with the string \\. \raggedrightragged right textleft-justifying textjustification, ragged right The \raggedright declaration corresponds to the flushleft environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in a parbox. Unlike the flushleft environment, the \raggedright command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how &latex; formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end command that ends the paragraph unit. flushright environmentragged left text, environment forright-justifying text, environment for \begin{flushright} line1 \\ line2 \\ ... \end{flushright} \\ (for flushright)The flushright environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged left. Each line must be terminated with the string \\. \raggedleftragged left textjustification, ragged leftright-justifying text The \raggedleft declaration corresponds to the flushright environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as quote or in a parbox. Unlike the flushright environment, the \raggedleft command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how &latex; formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit's format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or \end command that ends the paragraph unit. itemize environment\itemlists of itemsunordered listsbulleted lists Synopsis: \begin{itemize} \item item1 \item item2 ... \end{itemize} The itemize environment produces an “unordered”, “bulleted” list. Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as enumerate (see ). Each item of an itemize list begins with an \item command. There must be at least one \item command within the environment. By default, the marks at each level look like this: • -- (bold en-dash) * . (centered dot, rendered here as a period) \labelitemi\labelitemii\labelitemiii\labelitemivThe itemize environment uses the commands \labelitemi through \labelitemiv to produce the default label. So, you can use \renewcommand to change the labels. For instance, to have the first level use diamonds: \renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$} \leftmargin\leftmargini\leftmarginii\leftmarginiii\leftmarginiv\leftmarginv\leftmarginviThe \leftmargini through \leftmarginvi parameters define the distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and the left margin of the list. By convention, \leftmargin is set to the appropriate \leftmarginN when a new level of nesting is entered. The defaults vary from ‘.5em’ (highest levels of nesting) to ‘2.5em’ (first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode. This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists: \setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em Some parameters that affect list formatting: \itemindent Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero. \labelsep Space between the label and text of an item; default ‘.5em’. \labelwidth Width of the label; default ‘2em’, or ‘1.5em’ in two-column mode. \listparindent Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within a list item; default ‘0pt’. \rightmargin Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the enclosing environment; default ‘0pt’, except in the quote, quotation, and verse environments, where it is set equal to \leftmargin. Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather loose, by default). \itemsep Vertical space between items. The default is 2pt plus1pt minus1pt for 10pt documents, 3pt plus2pt minus1pt for 11pt, and 4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt for 12pt. \parsep Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item. Defaults are the same as \itemsep. \topsep Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph. The default is 4pt plus2pt minus2pt for 10pt documents, 6pt plus2pt minus2pt for 11pt, and 9pt plus3pt minus5pt for 12pt. \partopsep Extra space added to \topsep when the list environment starts a paragraph. The default is 2pt plus1pt minus1pt for 10pt documents, 3pt plus1pt minus1pt for 11pt, and 3pt plus2pt minus2pt for 12pt. \topsep Extra vertical space added before an initial and after a final list item. Its value is changed with list level and font size changes; for instance, within a first-level list at ‘10pt’, it is ‘4pt plus2pt minus2pt’. \parskip exampleEspecially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide space between items. Here is an example defining an itemize* environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs within a single item (\parskip is not list-specific, see ): \newenvironment{itemize*}% {\begin{itemize}% \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}% \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}% \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}% {\end{itemize}} letter This environment is used for creating letters. See . listlists of items, generic The list environment is a generic environment which is used for defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in documents, but often in macros. \begin{list}{labeling}{spacing} \item item1 \item item2 ... \end{list} The mandatory labeling argument specifies how items should be labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to \item). This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the label. It can and usually does contain other &latex; commands. The mandatory spacing argument contains commands to change the spacing parameters for the list. This argument will most often be empty, i.e., {}, which leaves the default spacing. math environmentin-line formulas Synopsis: \begin{math} math \end{math} The math environment inserts the given math within the running text. \(...\)) and $...$ are synonyms. See . minipage environmentminipage, creating a \begin{minipage}[position]{width} text \end{minipage} The minipage environment typesets its body text in a block that will not be broken across pages (similar to the \parbox command, see ). You may use other paragraph-making environments inside a minipage (unlike \parbox). It takes an optional position argument for placing text, and a mandatory width argument for specifying the line width. indentation of paragraphs, in minipageparagraph indentation, in minipage\parindentBy default, paragraphs are not indented in the minipage environment. You can restore indentation with a command such as \setlength{\parindent}{1pc} command. footnotes in figuresfigures, footnotes inFootnotes in a minipage environment are handled in a way that is particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A \footnote or \footnotetext command puts the footnote at the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the \mpfootnote counter instead of the ordinary footnote counter (see ). However, don't put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage. picturecreating picturespictures, creating \begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset) … picture commands … \end{picture} \unitlengthThe picture environment allows you to create just about any kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You tell &latex; where to put things in the picture by specifying their coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and a minus sign—a number like 5, 0.3 or -3.1416. A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length \unitlength, so if \unitlength has been set to 1cm, then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimeters. You should only change the value of \unitlength, using the \setlength command, outside of a picture environment. A position is a pair of coordinates, such as (2.4,-5), specifying the point with x-coordinate 2.4 and y-coordinate -5. Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; the parentheses serve to delimit the argument. The picture environment has one mandatory argument, which is a position. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this argument's x- and y-coordinates. The picture environment also has an optional position argument, following the size argument, that can change the origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture (thereby determining the origin). For example, if \unitlength has been set to 1mm, the command \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20) produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first draw a picture, you will omit the optional argument, leaving the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by shifting everything, you just add the appropriate optional argument. The environment's mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; &latex; will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even off the page. The picture's nominal size is used by &latex; in determining how much room to leave for it. Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the \put command. The command \put (11.3,-.3){...} puts the object specified by ... in the picture, with its reference point at coordinates (11.3,-.3). The reference points for various objects will be described below. lR boxThe \put command creates an LR box. You can put anything that can go in an \mbox (see ) in the text argument of the \put command. When you do this, the reference point will be the lower left corner of the box. The picture commands are described in the following sections. \circle \circle[*]{diameter} The \circle command produces a circle with a diameter as close to the specified one as possible. The *-form of the command draws a solid circle. Circles up to 40 pt can be drawn. \makebox (picture) \makebox(width,height)[position]{...} The \makebox command for the picture environment is similar to the normal \makebox command except that you must specify a width and height in multiples of \unitlength. The optional argument, [position], specifies the quadrant that your text appears in. You may select up to two of the following: t - Moves the item to the top of the rectangle b - Moves the item to the bottom l - Moves the item to the left r - Moves the item to the right See . \framebox Synopsis: \framebox(width,height)[pos]{...} The \framebox command is like \makebox (see previous section), except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it creates. \fboxrule\fboxsepThe \framebox command produces a rule of thickness \fboxrule, and leaves a space \fboxsep between the rule and the contents of the box. \dashbox Draws a box with a dashed line. Synopsis: \dashbox{dlen}(rwidth,rheight)[pos]{text} \dashbox creates a dashed rectangle around text in a picture environment. Dashes are dlen units long, and the rectangle has overall width rwidth and height rheight. The text is positioned at optional pos. A dashed box looks best when the rwidth and rheight are multiples of the dlen. \frame Synopsis: \frame{text} The \frame command puts a rectangular frame around text. The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra space is put between the frame and the object. \line Synopsis: \line(xslope,yslope){length} The \line command draws a line with the given length and slope xslope/yslope. Standard &latex; can only draw lines with slope = x/y, where x and y have integer values from −6 through 6. For lines of any slope, not to mention other shapes, see the curve2e and many many other packages on CTAN. \linethickness The \linethickness{dim} command declares the thickness of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment to be dim, which must be a positive length. \linethickness does not affect the thickness of slanted lines, circles, or the quarter circles drawn by \oval. \thicklines The \thicklines command is an alternate line thickness for horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf.  and . \thinlines The \thinlines command is the default line thickness for horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf.  and . \multiput Synopsis: \multiput(x,y)(delta_x,delta_y){n}{obj} The \multiput command copies the object obj in a regular pattern across a picture. obj is first placed at position (x,y), then at (x+\delta x,y+\delta y), and so on, n times. \oval Synopsis: \oval(width,height)[portion] The \oval command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. The optional argument portion allows you to select part of the oval via the following: t selects the top portion; b selects the bottom portion; r selects the right portion; l selects the left portion. The “corners” of the oval are made with quarter circles with a maximum radius of 20pt, so large “ovals” will look more like boxes with rounded corners. \put \put(x coord,y coord){ ... } The \put command places the item specified by the mandatory argument at the given coordinates. \shortstack Synopsis: \shortstack[position]{...\\...\\...} The \shortstack command produces a stack of objects. The valid positions are: r Move the objects to the right of the stack. l Move the objects to the left of the stack c Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default) \\ (for \shortstack objects)Objects are separated with \\. \vector Synopsis: \vector(x-slope,y-slope){length} The \vector command draws a line with an arrow of the specified length and slope. The x and y values must lie between −4 and +4, inclusive. quotationquoted text with paragraph indentation, displayingdisplaying quoted text with paragraph indentationparagraph indentations in quoted text Synopsis: \begin{quotation} text \end{quotation} The margins of the quotation environment are indented on both the left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph. Unlike the quote environment, each paragraph is indented normally. quotequoted text without paragraph indentation, displayingdisplaying quoted text without paragraph indentationparagraph indentations in quoted text, omitting Snyopsis: \begin{quote} text \end{quote} The margins of the quote environment are indented on both the left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph. Unlike the quotation environment, paragraphs are not indented. tabbing environmenttab stops, usinglining text up in columns using tab stopsalignment via tabbing Synopsis: \begin{tabbing} row1col1 \= row1col2 \= row1col3 \= row1col4 \\ row2col1 \> \> row2col3 \\ ... \end{tabbing} The tabbing environment provides a way to align text in columns. It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as was done on an ordinary typewriter. It is best suited for cases where the width of each column is constant and known in advance. This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the tabular environment. The following commands can be used inside a tabbing enviroment: \\ tabbing End a line. \= (tabbing) Sets a tab stop at the current position. \> (tabbing) \>Advances to the next tab stop. \< Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line. \+ Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary. \- Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary. \' (tabbing) Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column, i.e. everything from the most recent \>, \<, \', \\, or \kill command, to the right of the previous column, flush against the current column's tab stop. \` (tabbing) Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab stop 0. However, it can't move text to the right of the last column because there's no tab stop there. The \` command moves all the text that follows it, up to the \\ or \end{tabbing} command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing environment. There must be no \> or \' command between the \` and the command that ends the line. \a (tabbing) \a' (acute accent in tabbing)\a` (grave accent in tabbing)\a= (macron accent in tabbing)In a tabbing environment, the commands \=, \' and \` do not produce accents as usual (see ). Instead, the commands \a=, \a' and \a` are used. \kill Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like \\ except that it throws away the current line instead of producing output for it. The effect of any \=, \+ or \- commands in that line remain in effect. \poptabs \poptabsRestores the tab stop positions saved by the last \pushtabs. \pushtabs Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing tab stop positions in the middle of a tabbing environment. \tabbingsep Distance to left of tab stop moved by \'. This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format: \begin{tabbing} function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\ \> begin \= \+ \\ \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\ fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\ else \+ \\ fact := 1; \-\- \\ end;\\ \end{tabbing} tabletables, creatingcreating tables Synopsis: \begin{table}[placement] body of the table \caption{table title} \end{table} Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are usually “floated” to a convenient place, like the top of a page. Tables will not be split between two pages. The optional argument [placement] determines where &latex; will try to place your table. There are four places where &latex; can possibly put a float: h: Here - at the position in the text where the table environment appears. t: Top - at the top of a text page. b: Bottom - at the bottom of a text page. p: Page of floats - on a separate float page, which is a page containing no text, only floats. The standard report and article classes use the default placement [tbp]. The body of the table is made up of whatever text, &latex; commands, etc., you wish. The \caption command allows you to title your table. tabular environmentlines in tableslining text up in tables Synopsis: \begin{tabular}[pos]{cols} column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ ... \end{tabular} or \begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols} column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\ ... \end{tabular*} These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of items, aligned vertically in columns. \\ for tabular\\ must be used to specify the end of each row of the table, except for the last, where it is optional—unless an \hline command (to put a rule below the table) follows. The mandatory and optional arguments consist of: width Specifies the width of the tabular* environment. There must be rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the specified width. pos Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the centre of the environment. t - align on top row b - align on bottom row cols Specifies the column formatting. It consists of a sequence of the following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and intercolumn material. l - A column of left-aligned items. r - A column of right-aligned items. c - A column of centred items. | - A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment. @{text} - This inserts text in every row. An @-expression suppresses the intercolumn space normally inserted between columns; any desired space between the inserted text and the adjacent items must be included in text. An \extracolsep{wd} command in an @-expression causes an extra space of width wd to appear to the left of all subsequent columns, until countermanded by another \extracolsep command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression. An \extracolsep command can be used only in an @-expression in the cols argument. p{wd} - Produces a column with each item typeset in a parbox of width wd, as if it were the argument of a \parbox[t]{wd} command. However, a \\ may not appear in the item, except in the following situations: inside an environment like minipage, array, or tabular. inside an explicit \parbox. in the scope of a \centering, \raggedright, or \raggedleft declaration. The latter declarations must appear inside braces or an environment when used in a p-column element. *{num}{cols} - Equivalent to num copies of cols, where num is any positive integer and cols is any list of column-specifiers, which may contain another *-expression. Parameters that control formatting: \arrayrulewidth Thickness of the rule created by |, \hline, and \vline in the tabular and array environments; the default is ‘.4pt’. \arraystretch Scaling of spacing between rows in the tabular and array environments; default is ‘1’,for no scaling. \doublerulesep Horizontal distance between the vertical rules produced by || in the tabular and array environments; default is ‘2pt’. \tabcolsep Half the width of the space between columns; default is ‘6pt’. These commands can be used inside a tabular environment: \multicolumn Synopsis: \multicolumn{cols}{pos}{text} The \multicolumn command makes an entry that spans several columns. The first mandatory argument, cols, specifies the number of columns to span. The second mandatory argument, pos, specifies the formatting of the entry; c for centered, l for flushleft, r for flushright. The third mandatory argument, text, specifies what text to put in the entry. Here's an example showing two columns separated by an en-dash; \multicolumn is used for the heading: \begin{tabular}{r@{--}l} \multicolumn{2}{c}{\bf Unicode}\cr 0x80&0x7FF \cr 0x800&0xFFFF \cr 0x10000&0x1FFFF \cr \end{tabular} \cline Synopsis: \cline{i-j} The \cline command draws horizontal lines across the columns specified, beginning in column i and ending in column j, which are specified in the mandatory argument. \hline The \hline command draws a horizontal line the width of the enclosing tabular or array environment. It's most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of a table. \vline The \vline command will draw a vertical line extending the full height and depth of its row. An \hfill command can be used to move the line to the edge of the column. It can also be used in an @-expression. thebibliographybibliography, creating (manually) Synopsis: \begin{thebibliography}{widest-label} \bibitem[label]{cite_key} ... \end{thebibliography} The thebibliography environment produces a bibliography or reference list. In the article class, this reference list is labelled “References”; in the report class, it is labelled “Bibliography”. You can change the label (in the standard classes) by redefining the command \refname. For instance, this eliminates it entirely: \renewcommand{\refname}{} The mandatory widest-label argument is text that, when typeset, is as wide as the widest item label produced by the \bibitem commands. It is typically given as 9 for bibliographies with less than 10 references, 99 for ones with less than 100, etc. \bibitem Synopsis: \bibitem[label]{cite_key} The \bibitem command generates an entry labelled by label. If the label argument is missing, a number is automatically generated using the enumi counter. The cite_key is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols not containing a comma. This command writes an entry to the .aux file containing the item's cite_key and label. When the .aux file is read by the \begin{document} command, the item's label is associated with cite_key, causing references to cite_key with a \cite command (see next section) to produce the associated label. \cite Synopsis: \cite[subcite]{keys The keys argument is a list of one or more citation keys, separated by commas. This command generates an in-text citation to the references associated with keys by entries in the .aux file. The text of the optional subcite argument appears after the citation. For example, \cite[p.~314]{knuth} might produce `[Knuth, p. 314]'. \nocite \nocite{key_list} The \nocite command produces no text, but writes key_list, which is a list of one or more citation keys, on the .aux file. using Bib&tex;bib&tex;, usingbibliography, creating (automatically)\bibliographystyle\bibliography If you use the Bib&tex; program by Oren Patashnik (highly recommended if you need a bibliography of more than a couple of titles) to maintain your bibliography, you don't use the thebibliography environment (see ). Instead, you include the lines \bibliographystyle{bibstyle} \bibliography{bibfile1,bibfile2} The \bibliographystyle command does not produce any output of its own. Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will be produced: bibstyle refers to a file bibstyle.bst, which defines how your citations will look. The standard style names distributed with Bib&tex; are: alpha Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and year of publication. plain Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric. unsrt Like plain, but entries are in order of citation. abbrv Like plain, but more compact labels. In addition, numerous other Bib&tex; style files exist tailored to the demands of various publications. See http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/biblio/bibtex/contrib. The \bibliography command is what actually produces the bibliography. The argument to \bibliography refers to files named bibfile.bib, which should contain your database in Bib&tex; format. Only the entries referred to via \cite and \nocite will be listed in the bibliography. theorem environmenttheorems, typesetting Synopsis: \begin{theorem} theorem-text \end{theorem} The theorem environment produces “Theorem n” in boldface followed by theorem-text, where the numbering possibilities for n are described under \newtheorem (see ). titlepage environmentmaking a title pagetitle pages, creating Synopsis: \begin{titlepage} text \end{titlepage} The titlepage environment creates a title page, i.e., a page with no printed page number or heading. It also causes the following page to be numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to you. The \today command may be useful on title pages (see ). You can use the \maketitle command (see ) to produce a standard title page without a titlepage environment. verbatim environmentverbatim textsimulating typed texttyped text, simulatingcode, typesettingcomputer programs, typesetting Synopsis: \begin{verbatim} literal-text \end{verbatim} The verbatim environment is a paragraph-making environment in which &latex; produces exactly what you type in; for instance the \ character produces a printed ‘\’. It turns &latex; into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same effect that they would on a typewriter. The verbatim uses a monospaced typewriter-like font (\tt). \verbverbatim text, inline Synopsis: